The Phone-Card-Phone The First Disposable Cell Phone

Famous for staying, Weve printed a phone, Randice-Lisa Randi Altschul was issued a series of patents for the worlds first disposable cell phone in November 1999. Trademarked the Phone-Card-Phone ®, the device was the thickness of three credit cards and made from recycled paper products. It was a real cell phone, although it was designed for outgoing messages only. It offered 60 minutes of calling time and a hands-free attachment, and users could add more minutes or throw the device away after their calling time was used up. Rebates were offered for returning the phone instead of trashing it. About Randi Altschul   Randi Altschuls background was in toys and games. Her first invention was the Miami Vice Game, a cops-against-cocaine-dealers game named after the Miami Vice television series. Altschul also invented the famous Barbies 30th Birthday Game, as well as a wearable stuffed toy that allowed a child to make the toy give hugs and an interesting breakfast cereal. The cereal came in the shape of monsters that dissolved into mush when milk was added.    How the Disposable  Phone Came to Be Altschul thought up her invention after she was tempted to throw her cell phone out of her car in frustration over a bad connection. She realized that cell phones were too expansive to throw away. After clearing the idea with her patent lawyer and making sure no one else had already invented the disposable phone, Altschul patented both the disposable cell phone and its super thin technology, called STTTM, together with engineer Lee Volte.  Volte was the senior vice president of research and development at Tyco, the toy  making company, before joining up with Randi Altschul.   The 2-inch by 3-inch paper  cell phone was manufactured by Dieceland Technologies,  Altschuls Cliffside Park, New Jersey company.  The entire phone body, touchpad, and circuit board were made of a paper substrate. The paper-thin cell phone used an elongated flexible circuit which was one piece with the body of the phone, part of the patented STTTM technology. The ultrathin circuitry was made by applying metallic conductive inks to paper. The circuit itself became the body of the unit, Ms. Altschul told the New York Times. It became its own built-in, tamper-proof system because you break the circuits and the phone goes dead if you cut it open.   The toy designer with no prior experience in electronics developed the phone by surrounding herself with experts who shared her conceive-it, believe-it, achieve-it attitude, as she told USA Today. The greatest asset I have over everyone else in that business is my toy mentality, Altschul told the New York Times. An engineers mentality is to make something last, to make it durable. A toys lifespan is about an hour, then the kid throws it away. You get it, you play with it and — boom — its gone.   Im going cheap and dumb, she told The Register. In monetary terms, I want to be the next Bill Gates.   The STTTM technology opened up the potential for creating countless new electronic products and countless cheaper versions of pre-existing products. The technology was a milestone in electronic innovation.

Pest Analysis of Nigeria Essay - 3452 Words

SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment Customer Inserts His/her Name University Name SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment 1 Contents Business Environment of Nigeria †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...4 SWOT Analysis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦16 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦17 SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment 2 SWOT Analysis of Nigerian Business Environment Every country has its own business environment, just as every organization has its own set culture and business surroundings. While undertaking a business locally or abroad, the managers or CEOs of the organizations have to†¦show more content†¦It is an instrumental framework which is used to identify and evaluate the external value-creating (destroying) factors and the internal value-creating (destroying) factors in value-based management and strategy formulation (Value-Based Management, 2010). SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment 4 SWOT Analysis External ValueCreating (Destroying) Factors Internal Value-Creating (Destroying) Factors Opportunities Threats Strengths Weaknesses SWOT Analysis Nigeria, having a diversified social structure and complex business environment, also poses many merits and demerits for companies, both of which affecting the country locally and globally. Thus, a SWOT analysis becomes an essential step to be undertaken. The main factors for supporting or hindering the Nigerian company’s competitiveness as obtained by SWOT are as follows: ï‚ ·Strengths Nigeria is a combination of people of all ethnicities, races, and languages. There are many strong factors which ensure a successful business in the country and abroad. 1. Local Environment Nigeria, since 2007, has been making long strides towards improving the political as well as economical aspects of the country. The 2005 and 2006 Nigerian banking consolidations have SWOT Analysis of the Nigerian Business Environment 5 validated and proven the soundness and stability of the country’s banking and financial sector. This has made an indication thatShow MoreRelatedGermany Market : The Market For Growth Expansion1307 Words   |  6 Pagesthan the Nigeria currency this means more money will be brought into the country which makes it a good business location for Bel Implex. 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Critical Analysis of Project Management Plan

Question: Discuss about the Critical Analysis of Project Management Plan. Answer: Introduction The project report is prepared to perform the critical analysis of the chosen project management plan, using an example of a case study. For the critical analysis, Green ICT Project has been selected for the critical analysis. The project management plan for the Green ICT Project includes a detailed plan that covers multiple tasks and elements of the investigation and record of the data on the CO2e or Carbon Dioxide Footprint, at specific location, Australian National University. The project plan also includes identification of the ways to reduce the footprints of the carbon of ICT in the ANU. It involves collaborative tasks with stakeholders or identification of the trends of the industry to adopt Green IT Practices and evaluation of efficient technologies towards reducing and minimizing the ICT impact on the environment. The report is structured with a background of the project, where it has come from and what it comprises of. In the same section, the project context is also defined. The details of the sponsor or owner of the project are described in terms of what it does and many related things. Later, the audience of the project is explored and presented in the following section that include the details of what can they know, how they can use and what else information is needed for them. Alternatives to the structure of the PMP are then discussed. The context of the PMP is discussed. Finally, conclusion is added, followed by the references. Appendix is added at the end, for an actual project. Project Background In the project background section, the basic and primary details of the project are presented, such as the basis and motivation of the project and the objectives defined for the project. Every domestic and working place emits some part of the pollution or the greenhouse gases, in the form of CO2e or carbon dioxide footprint. The project is all about investing and exploring what is the greenhouse gas emitted by the Australia National University and also includes the solution to reduce the carbon emission. The sponsor organization is the Australia National University, which imparts knowledge to the aspiring students. The project is done to explore, how the educational institutions and workplaces share the part of the emission of the greenhouse gases. The university is located in Australia. The project involves investigation of content of CO2e emission, identifying and exploring various ways to reduce the carbon footprint, especially from ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the ANU. And industry trends are discussed to adopt the practices of the green IT to evaluate the efficient technology to reduce the impact of emission. The good initiative also explores the possible government incentives that are available to strengthen the green IT initiative. The initiative also includes bringing increasing awareness about the Green ICT among the stakeholders. The target and objective set is measurable to 10% reduction of emission by specific duration. The overall project gives clear details of how the project of reducing the greenhouse gases can be initiated and implemented by the educational institutions and Universities sponsor the project and how it is made possible. The project also gives the details and statistics of the base and background details. PMP Audience and Structure This section is written for identifying and describing the audience for the project, like who get benefited from this project, by basic learning and the structure of the project is also detailed of how the structure of the Green ICT Project is discussed of how all the project management plan data is made available. The project management plan is an approved and formal document that is developed and used for guiding the execution of the project and control. It includes the assumptions and decisions in the document planning. The plan facilitates formal communication established among the stakeholders of the project, cost, schedule baselines and scope. Usually, the plan includes all the elements of the project either briefly summarised or detailed. A complete project management plan can make the job of the project manager in executing the tasks related to the project, even though variations occur during the implementation. Eventually, the audience for this report of project management plan is the project managers. The project manager does not need to be confined to the projects related to the information technology or other industries. Even a new University student, who has the intention and objective of earning the Graduation certificate, can be a project manager, as the cortication involves many tasks, of taking the syllabus, gathering the resources, listening to the lectures, understanding and presenting the reports and finally giving the examinations or assessment can very well be a project manager. In a nutshell, any event that has multiple tasks come under the project management and the event manager becomes the project manager. A project manager needs to know and explore many things associated with the project and relevant subject knowledge can always be an added advantage. They have the entire responsibility and accountability to the final objective of the project that includes majorly planning, procurement and execution of the project, especially, in the engineering domain. Since the project managers are SPOC (Single Point of Contact) or first point of contact, for the concerns, issues, complements or anything regarding to the project, they should be aware of the entire plan, the current tasks, future tasks, all discrepancies to the project, before the issues are escalated to the higher management or authorities. Since an individual cannot perform all the tasks, the project involves usually, multiple team members and the management of the tasks as well as the team members become the responsibility of the project managers. The manager should strive the best to directly participate in the tasks and activiti es, intensify with the mutual tasks and interaction with multiple parties, in the ways that reduce the overall failure risk, minimizing the costs and maximizing the benefits. To perform all the tasks related to the project, the project manager has to have and make an effective project plan. The project plan is used by the day to day reference and logical sequence of the tasks of the project. The project management plan is well defined and built by the project manager, along with the organization of the project. The project management plan is well defined by the project manager and majorly done long before initiating the project, as it becomes the reference for getting the approval from the higher authorities or the sponsor of the project. Elements of PMP This section covers the basic elements of the general project management plan, by considering various project management methodologies, such as PMBOK and PRINCE2, Agile, etc. The general framework that includes all the elements is covered and the best alternatives in the industry. Project management plan is a macro level planning that includes all associated tasks, without leaving a single one task. Since, a project implementation is usually dependent on many of the disciplines and professions to complete and bring a shape to the objectives. For formal project management plan to be complete, an industry standard is to be followed, such as PRINCE 2, PMBOK, etc. At macro level, the plan should describe project execution, management Control. This content is usually provided by other document reference, like, construction plan, procurement plan or it can be even a detailed project plan itself. The project Management Plan usually includes the topics in the execution system of the project and that cover the main aspects, as the following. Scope management Schedule management Quality management Procurement management Risk management Project change management Requirements management Financial management Resource management Communication management Stakeholders management It is always a good practice to cover all the above management aspects, especially, for larger professional and consulting project management firms, as it becomes the basis or formally agreed version for the approval during earlier project stages and later applied during the throughout life of the project. Project Management Plan - Alternatives Project management plan is the plan that can be defined and built uniquely by the project managers, based on their expertise and experience. However, the experience and expertise of the specialized project management professionals and bodies have defined certain theories and models for the design and building the plan. There are many more theories and models built with the project management plan. One of the models that is almost universally accepted model is designed by the PMBOK (Project Manager Body Of Knowledge) and there are many other models existing are PRINCE, AGILE, Waterfall Model, etc. As discussed above there are many bodies, which have designed and modelled many of the theories and structures for the project management plan. There are numerous alternate theories and models developed for the reference for the project managers. However, let us consider only the widely accepted and used models and theories. PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge is a widely and globally accepted standard guidance and terminology as a body of knowledge in the domain of project management, developed by PMI (Project Management Institute). It considers the works to be accomplished by means of processes. This approach is consistently used with CMMI of software engineering institute, ISO 9000 and other management standards. Processes interact and overlap in various phases and throughout the project. Usually, the processes are detailed with three terms: Input Techniques and tools Outputs The PMBOK includes 47 processes and all of them are categorized and covered under basic five groups of processes and 10 knowledge areas. Process Groups Initiating Planning Executing Monitoring and Controlling Closing Knowledge Areas Project Integration Management Project Time Management Project Scope Management Project Cost Management Project Human Resource Management Project Procurement Management Project Communications Management Project Stakeholders Management Project Risk Management Project Quality Management As each industry is unique in planning and implementing the projects, the PMBOK shows the extensions as the following. Construction Extension Software Extension Government Extension Prince Another theory and model that is existing is the PRINCE (Projects in Controlled Environments) has the following structure of the project management plan. SU - Starting up a Project IP Initiating a Project DU Directing a Project CU Controlling a Project MP Managing Product Delivery SB Managing Stage Boundaries CP Closing a Project When the patterns of these models and theories are observed, it is evident that all the processes or diversified tasks are logically sequenced based on the pre-requisites. Critical Analysis of PMP This section presents the critical analysis of the project considered as an example, The ICT Green Project and later, the most widely used project management methodology is addressed along with all its PMP elements. Though there are numerous theoretical frameworks designed and developed by many of the organizations and bodies, let us consider the widely or universally accepted standard, PMBOK for the purpose of the critical analysis. The ICT Green Project does address the basic plan elements in a very detailed ways along with the necessary tools, tables and figures needed. It does a very clear idea about what the project is about and what all the processes and tasks involved along with the associated elements in the project. The structure of the plan is crystal clear of what is done and how is done. As there is always scope and room for betterment and so this project management plan. As the project does not clearly specify the cost of the project and its necessary elements involved in it, financial or cost management is necessary. The report also does not include detailed change management and requirement management, unless some part of is covered in the procurement management plan. However, the overall structure is good enough to give close to complete understanding of the project and project elements. PMBOK addresses all the sections involved in the project management plan, in basically ten knowledge areas. Project Integration Management It includes all the activities and processes required for defining, identifying, unifying, combining and coordinating several processes and activities related to the project management within the process groups of the project management. Project Scope Management The scope management includes all the processes required for ensuring of what the project includes for only the works required and all the work required for successful completion of the project. Project Quality Management The quality management is considerably a complex managerial task as it includes all the activities and processes to determine policies, based on the quality standards of the organizations and also to perform those pre-defined qualities, responsibilities and objectives. It is complex managerial task, however, it ensures not only achievement of the objects, in terms of quantity, but also achievements to be followed and fulfilled by the standards of the quality defined by the organization. So, it ensures quality product. Project Time Management It includes all the processes needed for managing and completing the tasks timely within the project. It is also termed as a schedule management, because schedule is developed and maintained from the schedule management. It is one of the key components of the project management as it becomes the reference to the success of the project, along with the budget and scope of the project. When the schedule is well managed, the project is expected to be completed and object is achieved within the time frame or time limit, specified for the project. Project Human Resource Management Human resource management is a key process and key knowledge area for any project to be implemented. in simple terms, when the human resources are managed effectively and potentially, all the tasks associated to them will be achieved within the time frame and satisfying all the standards set to them. Managing human resources is a key knowledge area, as it can define and determine the overall success and quality product of the project. Project Procurement Management Procurement management includes all the processes and tasks that are necessary to acquire the services, products, purchases or results expected from the team external to the project. This knowledge area includes many processes like, procurement planning, solicitation, solicitation, contact administration, source selection and contract closeout. It is a critical knowledge area for the project manager, as the manager has to deal with many of the stakeholders, external to the organization, but play a fair role in the success of the project. Project Communications Management Communication is the blood of any relationship and the relationships are quite important and significant to be maintained as the human sources play the roles to perform the tasks and activities. In order to perform these tasks and activities communication becomes a vital tool and process. so, the communication management in the project management plan includes various processes that are performed to ensure appropriate and timely planning collection distribution, creation, retrieval, storage, control, monitoring, management and ultimately, information disposition for the project. Without the communication, there are not tasks and activities do not move even an inch. At the same time, an effective communication can enable to deliver quality outputs or products at the end of each and every task. Project Stakeholders Management Though stakeholder management looks to be similar to the human resource management, it is different in many aspects. For example, human resources have common objective, similar to the objective of the organization. However it may not be with the stakeholders, as the stakeholders are from both internal and external to the organization and each of the stakeholder has certain needs, values and expectations from the project. Bringing all the stakeholders at a common ground, neutralizing all their needs and values, would need enormous and potential people management skills to the project manager. Once the stakeholder management is performed successfully and potentially, there would be lesser number of risks and issues associated with the project. Stakeholder management includes the processes that are needed to identify all the stakeholders within or external to the organizations, which get impact by the project and also the processes that analyse the expectations of the stakeholders, project impact, developing the appropriate strategies of management to engage the stakeholders effectively in the project towards making decisions and execution of the project. Project Risk Management Risk management is recently developed managerial task that included in the project management plan. Risk management plan is necessary for all kinds of projects, starting from the small scale to large scale. Though the risk management does not prevent the risks to the project, they make the project manager and project team to be prepared with all the mitigation plans and contingency plans to apply immediately, without any delays. It includes various processes, like conducting risk identification, risk response planning, risk management planning and controlling on risks possibly occurred for the project. Project Cost Management It is another key management aspect for the project management plan, apart from the scope and time of the project, which determine the success of the project. Usually, it is less focussed and considered as a secondary managerial aspect by the project manager, it is not the situation or condition as such. Cost management is vital to keep the project and complete within the budget set before the initiation of the project, without deviation of the quality. All these ten knowledge areas consist of the processes that have to be achieved and accomplished within the standard disciplines to achieve the final product of the project management. All the processes covered in these knowledge areas become the part of the PMBOKs five process groups. All these processes can create a structure of the matrix relating one process group and one knowledge area. Conclusions From the project management plan theories and models, it can be perceived that the project management plan becomes complete, only when all the aspects and all the key disciplines associated with the project are well covered. The plan ideally, should be performed both in macro level and micro level. And the plan should be developed with the begin with the end in mind as well as the journey and requisites for the tasks. A complete template has to be considered and each of the elements in the template has to be taken and should be customized to develop the project management plan. Customization is to be done effectively, as it would be close to impossible to develop a project management plan that would be compatible for all sized and all industries in all the disciplines. The way the project is customized depends on the primary objective and final product of the project. The Green ICT project is considered as an example for reference that gives basic understanding of what is the domain and what is the industry that the project sponsors and the project objective belongs to. The theory and model observed and discussed in the topic is the PMBOK and its knowledge areas and processes. The PMBOK project management plan model includes all the processes necessary to develop the project management plan. The model is strengthen in terms of inclusion of all the areas of knowledge and processes, however suffers from the weakness that the project time management is ineffective compared to the other models. Recommendations This section covers the basic elements covered in The ICT Green Project and elements that have missed are addressed and recommended to add. The ICT Green Project has been reported with wider project management elements covered. It covers project integration management, where the idea conception and motivation are addressed. Schedule management is also clearly presented with the tool, Gantt chart. It included scope management, human resource management, communication management and procurement management widely. However, the plan needs to include stakeholder management, detailed financial management and change management majorly, which are also important parts of the analysis. The project management plan developed and proposed by the PMBOK is quite compatible for many of the diverse projects globally, as it includes wider and most of the knowledge areas and also relative processes that can be applicable to wide range of unique projects. The model can be effective and more scientific and when adapted, it is expected to make the plan close to complete. However, considering all the areas of knowledge and all the processes would be a lengthier and a bit tedious process. However, it is still easier than exploring all the tasks and knowledge areas from scratch and it is considered as a professional and scientific approach that can be best utilized by the project managers. There is a weakness associated with the time management knowledge area of PMBOK and it is recommended to consider another project management plan approach, by either PRINCE or Agile to make it completely effective, as time management or schedule management is a key factor in the success of the project, in terms of optimizing the time, which is a very important resource that can minimize the expenditure of the other resources. The project sequence of the Green ICT Project is good enough, covering most of the knowledge areas, except the cost management as it is completed in a very simple manner, without getting into details of the costs, budgets and analysis of the same. The overall project plan is good enough and it is obvious that there is always a room for an improvement for any event or project. References A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, copyright page, edition 2 PMI 2012A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, 5th Ed. Reid, Amy 2013"Capita acquires majority stake in ITIL and PRINCE2".Association for project management. International project management association OGC (Office of Government Commerce) 2009.Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2(2009 ed.). TSO (The Stationery Office). N/a, 2007, The Definitive Guide to Project Management. Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. (Financial Times / Prentice Hall), London Paul C. Dinsmore et al 2005 The right projects done right!John Wiley and Sons. Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., Frederiksen, L. and Florian, T. 2011 Project-Based Organizing and Strategic Management, Advances in Strategic Management, Vol 28, Emerald 2003, "Project Management Guide".VA Office of Information and Technology. Joseph Phillips 2003,PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional. Peter Nathan, Gerald Everett Jones, 2003,PMP certification for dummies. PMI, 2010, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge Harold Kerzner,2003,.Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling(8th ed.). Wiley Dennis Lock, 2007, Project Management(9th ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd. James P. Lewis, 2000, The project manager's desk reference:: a comprehensive guide to project planning, scheduling, evaluation, and systems Young-Hoon Kwak, 2005, "A brief History of Project Management". In:The story of managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group. Jrg Becker, Martin Kugeler, Michael Rosemann, 2003, Process management: a guide for the design of business processes. David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis, 2006,Global Project Management Handbook. "Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management". McGraw-Hill Professional. Martin Stevens, 2002.Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited. Josef E. Riedl, 1990, Projekt Controlling in Forschung und Entwicklung Edward R. Marsh, 1975, "The Harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki". In:The Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1975) Steinle, Bruch, Lawa, 1995, Projektmanagement. FAZ Verlagsbereich Wirtschaftsbcher Cynthia Snyder, Frank Parth, 2006,Introduction to IT Project Management. Morgen Witzel, 2003, Fifty key figures in management. Routledge Ralph Stauber, H. M. Douty, Willard Fazar, Richard H. Jordan, William Weinfeld and Allen D. Manvel.Federal Statistical Activities. The American Statisticia 2006, Body of Knowledge 5th edition, Association for Project Management. Bjarne Kousholt 2007,.Project Management . Theory and practice.. Nyt Teknisk Forlag. Tom Kendrick. 2013, The Project Management Tool Kit: 100 Tips and Techniques for Getting the Job Done Right, Third Edition. AMACOM Books, Implementing Six Sigma. Forrest W Breyfogle 3, Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods The Black Belt Memory Jogger, A pocket guide for Six Sigma success L. Harrison, Dennis Lock, 2004, Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd.

Psych theories free essay sample

Erikson believed that changes in a human personality occur throughout an entire lifespan. The first of his 8 stages is between the years 0-2, or infancy. This stage is Trust vs. Mistrust, which focuses on developing trust in the people and things we are familiar with at this age. This decides whether or not we grow up fearful of the world or trustful of the world. The second stage is Autonomy vs. Doubt, from ages 2-3, or early childhood. This stage focuses on developing a sense of independence and pride in being successful. Ideally there would be a full sense of autonomy, but one can also doubt his or her abilities if the parents don’t allow them to do things on their own. Stage 3 from 4-5 years old is the Initiative vs. Guilt, in which children begin to ask questions and think more freely. This can be a success if parents help with these efforts and encourage them to ask questions and learn, but it can also be a failure if the parents don’t pay attention to the efforts the child is putting forth, which would cause a sense of guilt about initiated activities in the child. We will write a custom essay sample on Psych theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Stage 4 from 6-11 years of age is Industry vs. Inferiority, which focuses on building new things and having creative ideas. This can be taken down easily though if the parents don’t allow their child to create new things and have fun with new ideas they may have, instilling a sense of inferiority in the child. The fifth stage is during adolescence, about 12-20, and is called Identity vs. Role Confusion. In this stage, teens try and find a sense of who they are. Based on how the previous stages played out, young adults can find it difficult to figure out who they really are or what their life will be like in the future. Stage 6 is from about 20-35 years of age, and is Intimacy vs. Isolation. In this stage a person figures out whether or not they want an intimate relationship and a marriage, or if they will live a life of isolation without any intimate relationships. Stage 7 deals with the middle ages of life and is Generativity vs. Self-Absorption. In this stage a person focuses on either helping younger generations and making things better, or being absorbed in your own life, which would lead to no sense of fulfillment in life. Finally, stage 8 is from about 65 to death. In Integrity vs. Despair, one looks back on life and decides whether their life was lived to the fullest and successful, or if it was a waste and full of opportunities that one missed. Together these 8 stages describe the different aspects of a human’s personality through Erikson’s eyes. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget studied different stages of mental development in children to find out why and how they different from adults mentally. In Piaget’s first stage, from 0-2, he said children are in the sensorimotor stage. In this stage everything a child knows is based on how their senses perceive it. This means they only know things based on their 5 senses. The next stage is the preoperational from about 2-6 years of age. In this stage children know language and can use words and images to describe things, yet they still lack any logical reasoning behind things. The third stage is concrete operational which lasts from about 7-11 years of age. In this stage children can logically think about events that are actually happening and that they have seen or heard about. They can also perform more complex arithmetic. Finally, the last stage is from 12 to adulthood, and is called formal operational. In this stage they develop moral reasoning and also abstract thinking, meaning they can think about things that haven’t actually happened. Piaget believed that this is the endpoint of cognitive development, and that no other stage is possible. Vygotsky’s Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is affected by the culture a child lives and grew up in. Vygotsky brought up a new idea known as the zone of proximal development. This zone is the amount that children are able to learn with the help of somebody more knowledgeable. This zone changes when the child learns more and more until eventually it caps out when there is nobody else that can teach them more. Language also plays a significant role in the development of a child. The language used by different cultures can tell children different ideas of what is accepted and how things are done. When a mother tells a child â€Å"no† if he or she asks for some candy, later on that child could remember that it is not accept and say no to his or herself. Furthermore, the idea of scaffolding was introduced by Vygotsky as well. This idea says that a child should have adjusted help based on the level of help they need, until they need no help at all. Vygotsky says that culture affects the ways that one can develop cognitively. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Kohlberg studied reasoning as to why and how a person develops different moral standards. Kohlberg was able to split this up into 3 different stages. The first stage is preconventional morality, which is where actions are considered by the consequences that the actions will have on the person doing the action, which is very much self-centered. The second stage is conventional morality, which is based on expectations that one is trying to live up to as well as how someone’s actions will affect their conscience. Finally, postconventional morality has to do with the idea of individual rights and then later on the idea of upholding universal principles and laws that have been set by society. Postconventional morality is the highest level of morality attainable. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud uses 5 stages to describe the personality development of a child. The first stage is the Oral Stage, which occurs from about birth to 1 year of age. This stage’s primary interaction is through the mouth, most importantly used for feeding. This is where Freud came up with the rooting reflex, which is a reflex for an infant to search for a nipple when touched on the cheek. The second stage is the Anal Stage, which occurs from about 1-3 years of age. During this stage, the child focuses on mastering the control of bowel and bladder movements. This stage can be very successful if the parent is praising and patient with the child, but it can drastically fail if the parent is harsh or ridiculing of the child. The third stage is the Phallic Stage, which is between the ages 3 and 6. During this stage children begin to figure out the difference between a boy and a girl, and they tend to be more attracted to the same-sex parent because they can relate to them more genital wise. The fourth stage is the Latent Period, which occurs between 7 and 11 years of age. During this period the child is more focused on things such as school and friends and less concerned with the sexual aspects of life. This is the period where children gain large amounts of self-confidence. The final stage is the Genital Stage, which lasts from adolescence through adulthood. During this period a strong interest in the opposite gender occurs, especially during the puberty stage. This last all the way up until the end of life. Freud also believed that the ending goal was to find a balance in all aspects of one’s life. Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Baumrind looked into how parents affected the development of a child. Baumrind came up with 3 styles of parenting. The most effective style is the authoritative style. In this style, the parent sets down rules and guidelines that are to be followed, but they also listen to their children and accept input. This style is very democratic and tends to lead to the best raised children later in life. Another style is the authoritarian style. This style is very much like a dictatorship, where the parent has all of the say and the children either obey them or get punished. Parents also usually respond to why they do this with no reasoning whatsoever. Finally, the last style is the permissive style. In this style parents have very few demands or expectations of their child. They rarely punish them and usually allow the child to do as he or she pleases. The problem with this style is that the child tends to feel like they are not loved or even acknowledged, which leads to psychological problems later in life. Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory Ainsworth tested how a child’s attachment level affects its actions. Ainsworth found two different types of attachment after doing an experiment she calls the Strange Situation. In this experiment she took an infant and observed its behavior while the parent and a stranger enter and leave the room at different moments. Ainsworth found that secure attachment is when a child is happy and free when the parent is in the room and will engage strangers only when the parent is present. When the parent is gone the child is visibly sad and will not engage strangers. The other type of attachment Ainsworth found was insecure attachment, which is usually split up into anxious-resistant and anxious-avoidant. In anxious-resistant the child will be anxious around both the parent and the stranger, showing that is doesn’t really trust either of them. In anxious-avoidant, the child treats the parent and the stranger the same way and seems to have no attachment to either of them. Ainsworth/Baumrind Comparison Ainsworth and Baumrind both used the idea of parenting to come up with their theories. Ainsworth said that secure attachment is when a child is very comfortable with their parent and trusts them when they bring strangers around. This idea is very much like Baumrind’s authoritative parenting style. The child is secure with the parent and feels like they are in good hands and the authoritative parenting style allows children to have a say in what they do, but also have expectations for them which results in the most happy child that feels loved and cared for. Ainsworth said that one type of insecure attachment is resistant, which goes well with Baumrind’s authoritarian style. The authoritarian style results in the child not getting any say in the relationship and are overly strict. This results in a lack of trust from the child and a feeling of distance between the child and the parent, just as the resistant attachment says. Finally, Ainsworth’s last attachment was avoidant, where the child seems to have no connection to the parent. This is very similar to the permissive style of parenting where the parent lets the child do whatever they want to. This results in the child feeling unloved and detached from the family. Vygotsky/Piaget Comparison Vygotsky and Piaget both commented on cognitive development of a child, but they did so in very different ways. Vygotsky bases his developmental ideas off of mostly the culture the child grows up in. He believes that language and education are very important in the shaping of one’s cognitive abilities, whereas Piaget believes more in the idea that maturing minds gradually go through different stages of thinking. Piaget uses different stages, beginning with sensorimotor and finally hitting the formal operational stage around the age of 12. Vygotsky believes that there is a limit of cognitive development, but it differs depending on the culture and how the child is raised. The main point of Vygotsky is the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development, which is how people are taught based on the knowledge of others along with the knowledge the child possesses. This is very different from Piaget, who believes that the child learns most of everything on their own and develops different types of thinking and schemas based on what they encounter and how much they learn. Although they are both cognitive development theories, the details of the theories are very different. Kohlberg/Piaget Comparison Kohlberg believed that there were 3 different stages of morality in one’s life. Along with that, Piaget also used stages for his theory on cognitive development. Kohlberg and Piaget relate not only because they both incorporate different stages into their theories, but they also have many similar ideas even though they relate to different things. Kohlberg and Piaget both use the idea of self-centered. The preconventional stage is a very self-centered stage that only has to do with yourself. The early stages of Piaget’s theory also is like that in the sense that the child cannot comprehend the ideas of others or any abstract ideas. Furthermore, in both of the theories one moves up to the next stage by having a maturing mind. In Kohlberg’s theory, the more mature you become the more you understand about the outside world and the larger picture of the universe, just like in Piaget’s where the older you become the more advanced your thinking can become, until you can think abstractly. Although they are similar in many ways, Kohlberg and Piaget’s theories do have some differences. Piaget believes that the stages begin at birth and go on throughout life, while Kohlberg said that morality doesn’t start until around the age of 7. Kohlberg and Piaget incorporated many of the same theories and ideas into their overall theories on morality and cognitive development, yet there were also some distinct differences. Erikson/Freud Comparison Erikson and Freud shared many similarities in their theories. First, they both incorporate multiple different stages that are similar in age groupings. Erikson uses 8 different stages while Freud uses 5. This shows that they both believed that personality develops in predetermined stages. They also share the idea that in the early years children learn a sense of self-sufficiency and pride in the things they are able to do, which allows them to have a sense of accomplishment. Both theorist believed a big part of this stage was the idea of being toilet trained and able to go to the bathroom on their own. Furthermore, the two theories both have the idea of relationships and intimacy. In Freud’s, this idea is known as the genital stage and it occurs during puberty and goes on as the last stage in life until you die. In Erikson’s theory, this occurs as young adults and only lasts about 15 years until the next stage in life occurs. Although Erikson and Freud have very similar theories, they also have a couple of glaring differences. First, Erikson goes into many more stages after the intimacy stage, whereas Freud believes that is the end of personality development. Erikson goes on to talk about contributions to society and finally the idea of reflecting on life and wondering if it was a fulfilled like or a wasted one. Also, Freud focuses on the sexual aspect of personality development much more than Erikson. Freud mentions the Phallic Stage as well, which talks about the idea of children being closer to their same sex parent at this age because they can relate with them better at that young age. Freud and Erikson’s theories have both many similarities and differences and are very well respected.